Junction Desing Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Junction Desing - Term Paper Example Scenario 2: moderate accompanying refurbishments (low cost) Modifying the immediate major feeder roads to match the expectations of the ideal design for the junction. Scenario 2: Extensive work (high cost) Modifying all the minor and major feeder roads as well as the immediate link areas to major roads to be fed by the junction. Just as the level of work dictates, the three scenarios are more capital intensive as the work increase. However, with more work employed, so is the nearness towards creation of an ideal connection route and hence more effective in meeting public needs. Extensive work is also expected to create additional disturbances and challenges and hence there is a need to create a balance. The main environmental aspects considered in this report include: geology and soils, surface and groundwater conditions, air quality issues, generated noise, flora and fauna, landscaping and visual impact, cultural heritage, as well the population and general economy (O'Flaherty, 2002 , p. 123). This basically involves identification of the environmentally sensitive aspect along the connection route. It should be noted that no biodiversity areas under national or international legislation protection have been identified as lying along the area of construction. However, usage of natural resources including water resources, agriculturally viable land as well as forests is reviewed in the report. Improvements proposed Design standards for Junction Improvements. Design elements: Channelization: The movement of traffic flow at intersections to specified lanes and paths, by way of traffic marks is referred to as channelization. Channelization works for segregation of conflicts, regulation of conflict angles, regulation of speed, securing of automotive leaving or crossing the major traffic streams, securing of pedestrians, getting rid of excessive intersectional areas, blocking of prohibited movements as well as positioning of traffic regulation devices (Silver & Corbin , 2008). Design speed: The design speed at the intersection will help in governing multiple elements including entry – exit radius as well as the inscribed diameter. The design speed at the intersections in this case will vary from 20kmph to 25 kmph. Radius at entry: The radius at entry is defined by the design speed adopted, super elevation as well as the coefficient of friction. The radius should amount to drivers reducing their speeds to the design speed limit of the rotary. A range lying between 15 and 25 m is considered appropriate for the junction in question. Radius at exit: The exit radii should exceed the entry radii in order to enable the vehicles to increase speed while getting off the intersection. A range lying between 20 and 35 m is to be adopted in the remodeled design. A reduced radius may be chosen if the design speed at the point of exit calls for low speed due to high pedestrian flows as well as the site conditions. Width of carriageway at entry and exit: T he carriageway width with regard to the intersection legs is regulated by the design year traffic getting into and leaving the junction. The width at point of entry and point of exit depends on the carriageway width of the approaching road. The carriageway width with respect to the approaching road is dependent on the number of lanes that needs to be accommodated in each and every direction which largely depends on the volume of traffic entering and leaving the

Obesity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Obesity - Essay Example n Food Standards Agency and DOH, 2004) Roughly 65% and 50% men and women are overweight and have the tendency to be obese in case their weight gain remains uncontrolled. Considering that obesity could cause a person to deal with social adjustment disorders or social discrimination (Pearce et al., 2002) aside from a long list of serious health concerns related to heart diseases, diabetes and the different types of cancer (WHO, 2003, 2005a), the need to determine the impact of promoting organic foods on the high levels of obesity arises. For the purpose of this study, the researcher will conduct an extensive literature review on the general facts about obesity, the major causes of obesity, the negative consequences of obesity in terms of one’s health, social being, and economic losses. Eventually, the researcher will determine the status of promoting organic foods in UK followed by the benefits of organic food production to our health, environment, and our society in terms of analyzing the economic and social impact of promoting organic foods in the case of the high incidence of obesity in UK. Eventually, the researcher will discuss the literature review in line with the business opportunity that is present in relation to organic food production. Obesity is defined as â€Å"an excess of body fat that frequently lead to a significant impairment over a person’s health and longevity.† (House of Commons Health Committee, 2004) Based on the federal guidelines (Berg, 2003; NHLBI, 1998), a normal weight is computed using the Body Mass Index (BMI) wherein the normal range for an adult should be between 18.5 to less than 25 (BMI 18.5 to 25 kg/m2). BMI measurement between the ranges of 25 to less than 30 (BMI 25 to 30 kg/m2) is considered overweight and BMI measurement that exceeds 30 (BMI ≠¥ 30 kg/m2) is considered obese. In general, medical practitioners are using the formula â€Å"weight in pounds divided by height in inches squared multiplied by 703 or weight in

Crime 3396 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Crime 3396 - Assignment Example People are becoming vigilant in protecting themselves against the adversities of e-crime. The first thing is to educate them about the basic requirements of online safety. Second, I will advice them to set up basic protection against malicious software such as viruses and spyware in their computers. If they use computers for transactions, I will help them to install security features to ensure safety of their transactions and information. The consequences of e-crime include financial losses, computer destructions, business interruptions, theft of valuable and confidential data, and exposing children to objectionable sites such as pornography. The e-crime units investigate and provide legal and prosecutorial support for technology-based crimes. The units also develops and implement training programs for judges, law enforcement officers, the public and prosecutors on the necessity of strong information security and being aware of rising e-crimes. Yes, I studied extensively about e-crime during my undergraduate degree. I would suggest that curriculum developers to consider developing computer-based courses that particularly expose children to aspects of e-crime across all academic

Question 3 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 4

Question 3 - Essay Example The religious beliefs of Zoroastrianism go back to the common Aryan, Indo-European source, so Zoroastrian eschatology has parallels in eschatology of other Indo-European peoples. Zoroastrian eschatology and the doctrine of the opposing forces of good and evil had a great influence on various monotheistic religions, including Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. According to Zoroastrianism, the supreme creator Ahura Mazda has defined the term of the universe at 12 000 years (Price). In the first three thousand years, Ahura Mazda created the spiritual world and the light. At this time, the Zoroastrian devil did not contact the spiritual world, as it existed outside of it. Then evil came into the world and it resulted in the universal opposition between Ahura Mazda and Ahriman (the Evil). The remaining 9,000 years Zoroastrians divide into three epochs of the combat between God and the Satan. The last 3-thousand-year period begins at the preaching of Zoroaster. According to Avesta, during these three thousand years three saviors will come. At the end of the century, in the struggle between Ahura Mazda and Ahriman, the evil spirits will gain full authority over the earth, and fill it with all sorts of disasters. When the disasters reach their its climax, the creator of the world will send the first savior named â€Å"Aushedar, the developer of righteousness" (Price). He will do great wonders and call people to repentance. For a short time, people will find peace and prosperity. Thus, his appearance will not lead to the final victory. â€Å"The second saviour is called Aushedar-mah† (Price). People will be drinking water instead of eating the meat. Ahriman and his spirits will lose their power over man. However, after some time the evil will be reborn in the image of a monster named Azhi Dahaka, who will bring suffering and destruction to people. As

Functionalism Of The Marx Conflict Theory Sociology Essay

Functionalism Of The Marx Conflict Theory Sociology Essay According to Emile Durkheim and more recently with Talcott Parsons (Marshall 1994: 190-1) functionalism refers to system which interrelated with connection of several elements and each and every one of it has their own purpose of existence. Each elements play significant roles and responsibility to contribute within the system (Anderson and Taylor, 2005). Society had classified into different classes and status from low to high, but functional of duties difficult to verify significance of individual roles in society. Every character in society is essential roles within the system to circulate and they tend to affects each other. Contributions of every job have their own rewards but normally not all are equally paid. For examples, like stars they earn more than ordinary jobs like nurses but it does not represent the nurses are not play significant roles in society. Although nurses have less power and prestige than the stars, their functional position more vital compare to stars. Karl Marx is the first developer of conflicts theory used the hypothesis to explain about the development and revolution of industrials, he pointed out that emphasis of materialist among the culture of industries. Example like the 19th century of Europe, labour market was primarily control by groups of capitalists who were wealthy with outsized assets. Capitalists overuse their authority towards workers cause exploitation and rise up conflicts between them. At earlier times labours are treated like slave with getting value that lesser than what they have created in production and have no rights to voice up their inequality. Unfair treatment towards the labour show the gaps of power differences between the classes of society, the richest upper class who own the assets and poorest lower class who sell their labour time to. 1.3 Symbolic Interactionism Sociologists clarify the interactionism theory explain about communication among people within verbally and symbolic in order to share or approach meaning or messages (LaRossa and Reitzes, 1993). Symbolic interactionism enables human using various symbols to interact with others and impart appropriate meaning and messages with common languages (Mead, 1934). Indirectly, symbols and behaviours that individual present are majorly influence by social norms and believe. Each individual have their own specific perspectives and way to behave hence through interaction some symbols may created and develop. Meaning of symbols which attempt to send to others must be correctly connected to particular meaning and words which related in order to help receiver understand clearly and better or otherwise it will lead to misunderstanding and conflicts between each other. 2.0 Early Conflicts Theories à ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬ Karl Marx The earliest conflicts theories derived from Second World War period while the capitalists power over whelmed the labour market. Labours been treated as slaves work within the company and treated unfairly. The values that created by labours are more than what they deserve to received and caused exploitation. The earlier conflict theories emphasized more on inequality treatment of labours in industrials and value perceptions of people at earlier time ago (Swingwood, 1975). Capitalists maximize their authority on labour force to maximize production and profits and minimize time consuming. Labours welfare been ignored and status are classified as lower class which groups that always discriminate by society especially upper class capitalists. In early industrial sectors, Karl Marx allocates the society to two primary classes: Bourgeoisie, the party who own most of the assets such as monetary capitals, machines or factory and virtually monopolize the economy markets and Proletariat, the workers who sell their efforts and contribute to the industries (McAll, 1992). Due to scarcity resources of society, owners tend to get advantages from others. Capitalists over practice their authority and caused conflicts between classes, hence labours dissatisfaction arise the changes of social system to solve the exploitation problems (Anderson and Taylor, 2006). Karl Marx believes that if the conflicts situation keeps on remaining, the society will overcome the capitalism issues. After on at 1930, Max Weber, a German sociologist had developed a bureaucratic form which derived from Marxist capitalism theory. Max Weber emphasized the rules and regulation will certify the legitimate power which is the basis of social conflicts (Wesolowski, 1979). He believes that if the legitimate power does not be identify officially it would bring conflicts upon. Recent System Thinking on Conflicts Theories Max Weber bureaucracy system is broadly applied by all organizations now or should say as it had become basis element of organizations. The standardize process with rules and regulations assist management system more efficiently to manage labour force and resources. However, systematic process needs to improve to comply with external factors of organizations. According to the rapidly changing environment nowadays it would be challenge for organization to adapt to the various factors of environment. System can be determine in three degrees whether it is open system or closed system and group into two vital model, entropy which more refers to closed system which movement towards system run down and negentropy which refers to system which movement forward to advance structure (Bailey, 1990). The sociologist Niklas Luhmann (1927-1988) had develop system theory approach to examine the conflicts occur between system of organizations and the environment (Nollman, 2005). Luhmann explain differentiation of system and environment is one of complicate. Environment used to be more complex than system since there are few factors to be considered and try assembling it to adapt with owns culture system of organizations. Autopoietic system were develop by Luhmann which explained that it taking system like legal system or bureaucracy system as references among others. The system has four characteristic which can used to explain the system nowadays too. Firstly, autopoietic system generates its elements, for example money in economic market. Without the certification of value by market, money will not be valuable and just a paper. Both related and influence each other in the system. Autopoietic system is self-orientated to lay down boundaries and coordinate their organizations structure. The system usually set own limitations and regulations of managing structure of company. The system of autopoietic is self-reference within the economic system. As example, economic system created value for money and at the same time it considers the market to determine the price. Furthermore, autopoietic is a closed system which means the system does not directly attach with the environment (Esposito, 1996). Groups of people from lower class like labour might not have the ability to join within the system hence it shows that in economic market only involves who are wealthy and able to invest into the market. Communications are essentials part to solve conflicts. Within the standardize system it might be efficient but not truly effective. Interactions between people are importance to identify and understand each other. Society and psychic system have mutual element, both rely on communication to get the actual meaning of interaction (Ritzer, 2008). Sometimes, different people might using different way to approach others but meaning are not necessary propose, because meaning derived from particular words that been selected. Media nowadays will exercise different ways of sending messages to consumers, but some meaning might be hazy and hidden lead the consumer to the wrong information. This problem been declare by Luhmann and called it as double contingency. Double contingency discuss about the trouble of communication between parties and considerations of sending the correct messages. Society form by different cultures, norms and religions hence people all have their own believes and behaviour. Message sending by an individual to others might explain in other ways. As long as receiver understand the meaning which related and connected to particular words the information will be correctly present or else conflicts might occur. Luhmann, the first system theorists had develop sociology approach to solve the difficulties that organization facing. System could be adapt to external factors that might bring negative impacts to company. Both system and environment indirectly are interrelated to each others, with absence of one, it either will be hard to stand by its own. 4.0 Communication as on-going struggle Within system, communication acts an essential role to deliver appropriate information to the public. But not all information allowed to exposes to the society. Hence, this had cause misunderstanding and conflict rises between communication systems because of forbidden objectives or motif. As a lively examples showed will be conflicts between community, media and government. Therefore, government act as the capitalist within the system and media act as intermediaries to send information to society. Government are the main authority with supervising the society system hence, they monopolise the whole market. For that reason, government had entirely dominated mediaà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢s activities and that is where the struggles occur. Media had limitations of rights to deliver information to society. Their delivery information are red tape by government to avoid conflicts arise with the society. The forbidden information of government rises up conflicts as well even without declaration of media despite of every individual are sensitive to aware of any threaten information that will bring negative effects towards them. From the above, conflicts of society had verified that communication of recent system theory still consist with on-going struggle. 5.0 Comparison of early conflicts and recent conflicts Comparing the earlier and modern theories of conflicts, we can view that in early time conflicts theories arise because of inequality and division of labours with different classes of society. Power and capitals which monopolize the economy markets and exploit the labours that classify as lower class and get discriminate. Marx and Weber both consent towards the facts of conflicts arises from profit thinking of the capitalists or who with most authority (Henslin, 2002). However the sociologists have their own explanation towards economic order, Marx classifies that early centuries class of society conflicts and capitalists are the elements which monopolize the economic market. Another hand Weber states that power relationships are determined by character of political power and they have their own significant responsibilities. Between these two sociologists conflict theories, Weber conflict theories can enforce social change but Marxist only promote changes of system itself (Cohen, 200 0). Until nowadays, conflicts still arise between owners and labours but for modern conflict theories, but the difference is older days workers struggle for basic survival but workers nowadays struggle for more to authority and job entitlement. The welfare of workers does improve and partly solve struggles among both capital and labour. The capitalist phenomena had over taken by modern system theories but still conflicts maintaining such as the conflicts of challenges towards their job advancement or power. Furthermore, conflicts like discrimination of status and classes still exist between societies. 5.0 Conclusion Nowadays majorly business are globalise hence organizations have to adapt to the challenging environment which full with new factors like technology. In order to improve efficiency, conflicts are the natural process to be experience and develop social changes. Capitalists who owned more assets are main authority to supervise the labour process yet people might misuse the power for own interests. The unbalance of social life will be still exist and so with conflicts, but both does not appear to be crucial mode like early years. Conflicts are continuous and might difficult to handle, but conflicts had lead organizations to more advanced system and make improvements. Communication between individuals helps improving understanding each other and minimizes the occurrence of conflicts but if the information does not send or approach properly it might cause another troubles and make the circumstances worsen. (1995) words

Perception And Platos Theaetetus :: essays research papers

Plato discusses theories of knowledge throughout his famous dialogue, the Theaetetus. He discusses many different ways of learning and attempts to define knowledge. Plato does this through a conversation between a few characters: Socrates, the famous philosopher; Theodorus, an aged friend and philosopher of Socrates; and Theaetetus, a young man who is introduced to Socrates before a discussion. One aspect of knowledge which they review is perception. It is defined and explained by Socrates, to the young and innocent Theaetetus.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Perception is defined by Floyd H. Allport in his book, Theories of Perception and the Concept of Structure, as â€Å"the way things look to us, or the way they sound, feel, taste, or smell.† It is not the way things are exactly, but the way we see them; or because it involves all of the five senses, the way we perceive them. Perception is not restricted to sight only, the world has countless numbers of sounds, smells, and textures.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Perception is â€Å"the way things look to us† because even though something might seem to be one way, it is another. For example, the Muller-Lyer illusion makes people see two lines of different lengths, while the lines are the same size. This illustrates the fact that just because you perceive something to be a certain way does not mean that it is true. Truth and perception do not necessarily coincide. This is also true with belief. When seeing something that is too far fetched to be real, then you find it hard to believe. Perception is merely an â€Å"experience [which] is just a stage along the causal process leading to belief.† Perception is not truth or belief, but it is an important (however, not necessary) step to reaching them.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In Plato’s Theaetetus, the three characters in the conversation have a discussion on perception and how it relates to the world. Plato recounts Socrates telling the young Theaetetus how, contrary to his belief, perception is not knowledge. Perception is too varied, Socrates says. He gives the example of a breeze blowing; one man can be made cold from the wind, while the man next to him might not be cold at all. The blowing wind is the same temperature, but as defined above, perception is â€Å"the way things look to us. Perception And Plato's Theaetetus :: essays research papers Plato discusses theories of knowledge throughout his famous dialogue, the Theaetetus. He discusses many different ways of learning and attempts to define knowledge. Plato does this through a conversation between a few characters: Socrates, the famous philosopher; Theodorus, an aged friend and philosopher of Socrates; and Theaetetus, a young man who is introduced to Socrates before a discussion. One aspect of knowledge which they review is perception. It is defined and explained by Socrates, to the young and innocent Theaetetus.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Perception is defined by Floyd H. Allport in his book, Theories of Perception and the Concept of Structure, as â€Å"the way things look to us, or the way they sound, feel, taste, or smell.† It is not the way things are exactly, but the way we see them; or because it involves all of the five senses, the way we perceive them. Perception is not restricted to sight only, the world has countless numbers of sounds, smells, and textures.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Perception is â€Å"the way things look to us† because even though something might seem to be one way, it is another. For example, the Muller-Lyer illusion makes people see two lines of different lengths, while the lines are the same size. This illustrates the fact that just because you perceive something to be a certain way does not mean that it is true. Truth and perception do not necessarily coincide. This is also true with belief. When seeing something that is too far fetched to be real, then you find it hard to believe. Perception is merely an â€Å"experience [which] is just a stage along the causal process leading to belief.† Perception is not truth or belief, but it is an important (however, not necessary) step to reaching them.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In Plato’s Theaetetus, the three characters in the conversation have a discussion on perception and how it relates to the world. Plato recounts Socrates telling the young Theaetetus how, contrary to his belief, perception is not knowledge. Perception is too varied, Socrates says. He gives the example of a breeze blowing; one man can be made cold from the wind, while the man next to him might not be cold at all. The blowing wind is the same temperature, but as defined above, perception is â€Å"the way things look to us.

The Organizational Implications of Robotics

Forecasts of how many robots will be used In 1990 I- the u-led States range between 75,000 and 150,000 (Hunt & Hunt, 1983). Little Is known, however, about how Individual employees react to the Introduction of robots or about the changes needed In organizations to support robotics. Our research focuses on â€Å"deterrents†g the human side of robotics–how Individuals react to robots, how and when organizations should be modified to support robotics, and what effective strategies are for the Implementation of robotics.The Robot Institute of America defines a robot as a programmable, multifunctional manipulator designed to move objects through variable programmed motions to perform a variety of tasks (Robot Institute of America, 1982). Two characteristics differentiate taboos from most other forms of automation: multiple task capability and programmability. The robots used most frequently in U. S. Factories today, in jobs that involve moving material, welding, drilling, or spray painting, are called level To' first-generation robots.Researchers are now in the process of developing taboos, known as level II or second-generation robots, with more sophisticated sensing and thinking capabilities. For example, a level II robot that is capable of identifying the location of parts of different shapes and sizes is currently bee†g developed. Other examples of level II robots include those that mine underground coal seams, detect gas leaks, or perform sophisticated I†speciation tasks. Ares and Miller (1983) provide a good description of the current and expected future capabilities of robotics. 2 1:1 this paper. E first develop a GE:learn framework for' the effects of robots I:altitudes and We I:electorate from our field studies of the implementation:l of robotics as well as from other field studies f the Impact of robotics our general framework. The methodology and results of our field studies are described in greater detail In Argots, Goodman, a:o ld Cascade (1983) a:old Argots and Goodman (1984). We conclude the paper with suggestions for researchers who are analyzing the Implementation of robotics and with recommendations for managers who plan to utilize robotics In their organizations.A General Framework The use of robotics may have a profound effect on the organization of work a. ‘old on the productivity of tessellations. Robots typically require :lee skills of both reduction and technical support personnel and require closer l:alterations among functional areas (Argots. Goodman, & Cascade, 1983). Robots may displace some Technology Assessment, 1984). Robots may also enable organizations to be more flexible by decreasing set-up times associated WI the product changeovers. Moreover, robots may enable organizations to achieve greater consists:LLC I:l the quality of their products (Ares & Miller, 1983; Guest, 1984).In this section, we develop a general framework for anticipating these effects of robots on individuals a nd organizations s well as for predict:leg the conditions under which the use of robots will enhance organizational performance. Organizational Performance L â€Å"l order to present our general framework, we first must discuss the concept of organ:location:ala performance. Organizations can be thought of as consisting of three basic components–people, etc†Ã¢â‚¬ logy. And structure. 3 It is the compatibility between† these three basic comps†e†TTS of organ†Tioga:l's that determined†sees their Performa†CE (Alleviate, 1965; Emery & Trust, 1973).Organizational performance is a complex variable with multiple dimensions (Goodman & Pen†inns, 1977; Katz & Kahn, 1978). Examples of performance criteria that are critical in the manufacture:leg environment are productivity, product quality, manufacture:leg flexibility, absenteeism, turnover, and employee motivation and well-bee:leg. These criteria may vary in importance over time and to d ifferent constituencies. For example, sales and marketing departments may place a higher premium on manufacturing flexibility than other functional areas because it enables the organization to adapt to customers' needs in a timely fashion.Similarly, manufacture:leg flexibility may be ore important in early than in late stages off product's life cycle (Kaplan, 1983). Further, these performance crib terra are likely to be interrelate Ted, sometimes complex ways. For example, employee motivation may be positively related to work unit productivity under conditions of uncertain:let that occur, for example, when a machine breaks down, while employee motivation may have little effect on the productivity of capital-I:latencies firms under route†e or programmed condo actions (CB. Goodman, 1979).Similarly, productivity, at least measured I† the short tune, may be negatively associated with manufacture:leg flexibility. The complexity of the concept of organizational performance sug gests that understanding the impact and effects of :lee technologies requires an appreciation of the interrelationships among the elements of organizations. It also suggests the †deed for exam†I:leg multiple performance criteria a:old the trade-offs among them. Further research is :leaded to identify how the I†duration:l of robots will affect the elements of an organization a:old the conditions under which these elements may be 4 compatible. He few exists†g meme†kcal studies of the of robots (Argots, Goodman, & Cascade, 983; Argots & Goodman†, 1984; Office of Technology Assessment, 1984) and thee-ethical work on Job design, o†generational SST†structure, o†generational effective†sees, a†d the introduction of change enable us to suggest what these effects a†e likely to be and when the use of †boots is likely to e†ha†CE manufacture†I†g pee†finance We want to emphasize that us'â⠂¬ g robots does not automatically imply certain consequence†sees for organizations but rather it is the interplay between characteristics of the technology, the manner in which it is I†traduced, the organization's structure, For example, some companies p†ovoid little training of† their robot operators and design the Jobs of operators such that they have little autonomy and are very dependent on technical support staff.Other comma†sees provide more trait†ins for their operators, design more autonomy into their Jobs, and expect them to be actively involved in patriotism†g the operation of the robots. Our sense is that the latter approach to design†ins the operator's Job results in more motivated operators and a speedier and smoother implement†taxation than the boomer. The technology in each approach is the same. It is the supporting organizational arrangements that are different. Thus, the use of robots does not determine certain consequences for organizations. Instead it is the relationship between characteristics of the robots, the people who operate and maintain the robots, and the organizational arrangements that support the robots that affect the putrescence of o†sanitation†s. I†dividable Employees We †owe turn to what is known about how the I†duration† of â€Å"O bots typically affects individual employees I† organ†actions. The I†duration† of robots usually changes the skills and Job activities of I†dividable employees. In our study off plant in the metal-working industry, the introduction of a robot that performed material handling activities caused a shift in the robot operators' Jobs from primarily manual to primarily mental activities (Argots, Goodman, & Cascade, 1983). The Office of Technology Assessment (TOT) reports a similar change with the introduction of welding robots in the automobile industry: the introduction of the robot s removed some of the physical demands from the Jobs of human operators (TOT, 1984).Thus, the introduction of robots in both studies had a positive effect on employees' work environments: the robots assumed some of the very physically demanding tasks otherwise performed by humans. At the same time, both studies found that the introduction of robots had certain negative effects on employees. Operators in our study reported that they experienced more stress and less control after the robot SASS introduced (Argots, Goodman, & Cascade, 1983). Similarly, the TOT report indicates that direct production employees felt less control with the introduction of the welding robots, because their Jobs were now tied to an assembly line (TOT, 1984).Repair supervisors in the TOT report also experienced greater stress upon the implementation of robots, apparently due to the pressures of maintaining a complex and highly integrated production system (TOT , 1984). Based on previous research, we expect th at if the I†transduction of robots leads to employees experiencing less control over their work environment, then they will be less satisfied, less motivated, and experience more stress upon the introduction of new technologies (Blabber, 6 1964; Hack† & Lawyer, 1971; Hickman & Lolled, 1975; Sutton & Kahn, in press). We also expect that systems that are very complex or characterized by low reliability will be associated with increased stress (Bright, 1958; TOT, 1984). The experience of variety and feedback on the Job promotes employee well-bet†g (Hickman & Lolled, 1975).If the use of robotics affects the variety and feedback employees experience, then we expect corresponding changes in their satisfaction and motivation. Along these lines, the TOT report I†dictates that mat†tenancy introduction of welding robots: the maintenance workers' Jobs were characterized by greater variety and more challenge (TOT, 1984). The introduction of robotics typically chang es the skill requirements of both production and technical support personnel. As noted earlier, the use of robots usually shifts operators' Jobs from manually-oriented to mentally-oriented activities. If these changes are compatible with employees' skills and preferences, employees will feel more satisfied and less stress with the change.Strategies are suggested later in this chapter for maximizing the fit between employees and their Jobs and for designing the Jobs of employees, both direct and indirect, who must interact with robots. The manner in which robots are implemented may also affect employee reaction to the change. Coco and Fresh's (1948) classic study indicates that introducing change n a participative fashion increases the likelihood that employees will react positively to change. Other researchers have also stressed participation as a key variable in determining the extent to which employees react positively to change (Cotter & Schlesinger, 1979; Deteriorate al. , 1983) .While employees I† the two organizations we studied did †to participate at all in any decisions surrounding the I†transduction of the robots, employees at both organizations desired more that† they actually had (Argots, Goodman, & Cascade, 1983; Argots & Goodman, 1984). The discrepancy between how much influence they actually had and how much they desired was especially pronounced at the second organization we studied, possibly because the organization was unionized and had a tradition of employee participation. While employees desired more influence, they acknowledged that the implementation of robotics is a complex activity requiring technical expertise that they generally do not possess. Hence, employees did not expect a great deal of influence in decisions regarding robotics.They did feel, however, that they had some expertise, especially concerning work processes and machines in their department, and that they should be involved in socio† related to their areas of expertise. Another dimension of the implementation process is the method organizations use to communicate with employees about the introduction of robotics. Organizations may use a variety of communication mechanisms, including talks by the plant manager, meetings with first-line supervisors, and demonstrations. L† our research, we examined how effective employees rated the various communication sources their organizations used to introduce robotics. Our results indicate that demonstrations of the operation of robots are [dated by employees as most effective or increasing their understanding of robots (Argots, Goodman. & Cascade, 1983).This result is corroborated by the finding that the demonstration had a greater impact on employees' beliefs about and attitudes towards robotics than any other communication source the organization used (Argots & Goodman, 1985). 8 How employee motivation, satisfaction and stress affect the performance of firms using robotics r emains an open question. Teethe is a growing sense in the business literature that these human resource issues are critical too firm's ability to compete that using robotics and other programmable automation in ways that enhance employee well-being leads to increased organizational efficiency (TOT, 1984). Consequently, it is important that we identify the conditions under which employee motivation, satisfaction, and stress affect the overall performance of firms using robotics.A† interesting hypothesis developed from previous research is that these human resource variables affect the overall performance of work units when nonprogrammer situations occur, for example, a machine breakdown or the introduction of a new product (CB. Goodman, 1979). Under routine operating conditions, human motivation and attitudes †ay have little effect on the performance f robotics systems. That is, human resource variables may matter more when tech. †eulogies are first being implemente d, when new products alee being introduced, To' when unexpected problems arise than when systems are operating routinely. Organizational Structures In addition to affecting individual employees, the introduction of robots may also change the basic structures of organizations–communication within and between departments, decision-making responsibilities, role relationships and the like.In our study, we found that the introduction of a robot led to increased interactions teen production and technical support personnel from engineering and maintenance. Studies of other technologies similar to robots, such as numerical control machines, report similar increases in interaction among production, engineering, and maintenance groups (Williams & Williams, 1964; TOT, 1984). 9 The use of robotics also has the potential to chaw:leg collation:lisps between production a:old markets:leg groups is:lace robots may reduce the time it takes to change from one product to another. This potential could e:label organizations both to accommodate a more varied product mix a:old to response:old more easily to customer demands.Although we have :lot yet witnessed a:AY empirical evidence of modified relationships between production and marketing due to the introduction of robots, these changes might occur as more robots are put on line and linked in integrated systems. There is some evidence that the use of advanced automation on the factory floor may enable organizations to centralize production scheduling decisions (TOT, 1984). This may reduce the need for technical experts who schedule production as well as eliminate scheduling tasks from supervisors' Jobs. Similarly, intelligent robots that perform inspection tasks may reduce the requirement for facial quality control staff. Indeed the use of intelligent robots may lead to fewer hierarchical levels within organizations as well as too smaller number of direct production workers (Cherty, Dunked, Jordan, & Miller, 1984).This is be cause intelligent systems alee capable of performing many activities, both manual and mental, traditionally performed by supervisors and certain support staff as well as by direct production workers. There are already examples of organizations where the use of programmable automation has led to the elimination of one layer of supervisors Chem.., Sisley, Liker, Earthman, & Thomas, 1984). At the same time, the use of intelligent robots may require more individuals with expertise maintaining and programming robots. R Thus far, we have focused on describing how the use of robotics is likely to change these structural changes may be associated with improved manufacturing performance.As noted earlier, the use of 10 robotics typically I†creases the I†trepanned†CE of activities performed by member's of different functional groups. He†CE the use of robotics usually requires more interaction among these functional areas. We have observed companies where the increased i nteractions went extremely smoothly, a†d all groups were motivated to cooperate in the implementation of the †ewe technology. We have also observed companies where the increased interaction was characterized by hostility, impede†g the implementation. What differentiates these two situations? In their analysis of interdepartmental conflict in organizations, Walton and Dutton (1969) discuss the conditions under which interdenominational relationships are characterized by conflict.These conditions include: a reward structure that emphasizes the performance of separate roofs; asymmetric interdependence in which one group is more dependent on the other; communication obstacles such as different locations or specialized languages; and aggressive individuals. Applying these findings to the implementation of robotics provides insight in predicting when the increased interactions required by the use of robotics are likely to be smooth and when they are likely to be conflict ion. If a company's reward structure emphasizes the putrescence of separate groups, we expect the introduction of robotics to be characterized by conflict. This might occur, for example, if production groups are threaded according to short-term efficiency figures while engineering groups are rewarded for the number of †ewe equipment pieces they introduce. Asymmetric interdependence is also likely to contribute to conflict.This situation characterizes most introductions of new technology where, at least in certain stages of the implementation, production is more dependent on engineering for hardware and software then engineering is dependent on production. The effect of asymmetric needs on conflict is 11 moderated by the company's reward system. A reward system that emphasizes the performance of operate groups will only amplify the conflict potential of asymmetric interdependence. Instead, a reward system that has a more global and long-term orientation may foster cooperation a nd reduce the potential for conflict caused by asymmetric interdependence. When the functional groups that must interact to implement new technology are located in different areas or use different terminologies, conflict is likely to surround the process.Conversely, if the different groups are located near each other, sit in on each other's meetings to understand each other's goals and constraints, and use a common language, then we expect the interactions required by the introduction of robotics to be more graceful. Finally, the nature of people who play key roles in the introduction, such as the lead engineer, affects the level of conflict. When key positions are occupied by . †aggressive, authoritarian individuals concerned primarily with their own careers, the probability of conflict increases. The behavior of these individuals also will be affected, of course, by the company's reward sys tem. &†other structural issue raised by the implementation of robotics concerns the balance between centralization and decentralization in a organization. Current